An Elementary Laboratory 
Study in Crops, 
Prepared by 
Prof. Joseph A. JeflPery 
of the M. A. C. 

SB 117 
.J45 
Copy 1 



For the Schools 
oi Michigan 




BuJJetin No. 26, 
J 907 



Published by the 
State Superintendent 
of Public Instruction 



AN 



ELEMENTARY LABORATORY STUDY 



IN 



C I^ O F^ S 



FOR THE 



SCHOOLS OF MICHIGAN 



BY 



JOSEPH A. JEFFERY, Profesfor of Agronomy, 
Michigan Agiicultural College. 



Published by the 
State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 



JAN 8 1903 



COPY 8. 



Copyright, 1917 
Dv Joseph A. Jeffery. 



STATE OF MICHIGAN, 
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

Lansing, November 15, 1907. 
To Commissioners, Superintendents and Teachers: 

The subject of nature study has been discussed for a numlier of years 
and has been taught in our pu])lic schools with such a degree of success 
that there is a general demand among those interested in agriculture that 
the subject of elementary agriculture shall also be taught. The president 
and faculty of the Agricultural College have given much time and thought 
to determine just what is meant by elementary agriculture and how much 
of agriculture can profitably be taught in the rural and village schools. 

At the request of this Department, Joseph A. Jeffery, Professor of Agronomy 
in the Michigan Agricultural College, has prepared the material presented 
in the following pages as an elementary study in crops, and this bulletin 
is published for the purpose of putting into the hands of our teachers some 
simple and definite work in the subject of agriculture. We submit it to 
the schools and teachers of the State in the hope that it will be of material 
assistance in presenting this important subject to our students, and that 
ultimately we may be able to introduce into our courses of study a concise 
and profitable course in the subject of elementary agriculture. 

Very respectfully. 



Superintendent of Public Instruction. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. Hrs. 

Introduction 7 

Laboratory equipment 7 8 

Collecting grains , 7 8 

Experiments : 

I. A study in seed germination — beans 8 10 

II. A study in seed germination — corn 9 4 

III. How the young plants appear above ground — beans 9 6 

IV. How the young plants appear above ground — corn 10 6 

V. How the young plants appear above ground — other seeds 10 t3 

VI. The quantity of food stored in seeds 10 3 

VII. The depth to which seeds should be planted 11 3 

VIII. Effect of age upon the vitality of seeds 12 3 

IX. The vitality of bin grains 13 3 

X. The vitality of sprouted grains 14 4 

XI. The vitality of kernels from different parts of the ear of corn. . 15 2 

XII. The effect of freezing upon the vitality of seed corn 17 3 

XIII. Necessity for air in the germination of seeds 17 3 

XIV. The effect of temperature on the germination of seeds 19 3 

XV. Corn seed testing 20 

The importance of early saving and drying of seed corn 16 

Corn judging 22 

The ideal or perfect ear 22 

Score card — corn 27 

Outline for scoring dent corn 28 



INTRODUCTION. 

The farmer should understand the nature of a seed, its relation to the 
future plant, the importance of vitality in the seed, the conditions lessening 
its vitality, and the conditions requisite to preserve its vitality. He should 
understand also the conditions outside the seed upon which depends the 
production of vigorous plants. Upon such knowledge depends all rational 
practice in crop production. 

The following course of laboratory exercises has been outlined with a view 
to giving the pupil the opportunity of demonstrating for himself by actual 
experiment the importance of such knowledge. 

It is expected that some text-book will be studied in conjunction with 
this work. 



LABORATORY EQUIPMENT. 

The following apparatus will be needed: 

Two doz. dinner plates or pie tins. 

Two doz. discs of Canton flannel (or a like number of filter papers) of a 
diameter one inch less than that of the plates or pie tins. 

One doz. 600 c.c. lipped beakers. 

Two doz. one-quart bean pans (granite ware perferable). 

One doz. shallow four-cjuart pans (graniteware preferable). 

One doz. deep gallon jars. 

One doz. one-pint graniteware or porcelain dishes. 

Two doz. wooden boxes 18 inches long, 10 inches wide and 2 inches deep. 

Two hundred pounds of fine quartz sand. (This sand can be procured of 
the Wausau Quartz Co., of Wausau, Wis.). 

Two bushels of air-dry fine sand or fine sandy soil for germinating seed. 

A collection of seeds and grains for illustrative })urposes and for experi- 
mental work. 

Tight boxes with covers should be provided to hold the sands and soil. 

Glass receptacles should be provided to hold the seeds aiul grains. Pint, 
quart, and two-quart Mason fruit jars make inexpensive and convenient 
receptacles. 



A SHORT COURSE IN SEEDS AND GRAUNS. 

Make a collection of seeds and grains commonly grown on the farm. This 
collection should include beans, peas, clover, timothy, beets, wheat, oats, 
barley, corn, buckwheat, etc. Different varieties of each should be brought 
i n so far as possible. 



8 DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

Samples of each should be placed in 4 oz. screw-cap vials for later ex- 
amination and reference, while larger quantities should be kept in bulk 
for study and experiment. Samples of many of these should be gathered 
in the pod, head, and ear, with portions or all of the plant. The extent to 
which this is done, beyond the study needs of the class, must depend upon 
the storage facilities of the laboratory or museum. The pupils should be 
required to help or indeed to do all the work of making the collection. 



THE STUDY OF THE SEED. 

The pupil should be made to understand that a seed or a kernel of grain 
consists of (1) a young plant, or embryo; (2) a supply of food prepared and 
stored for the use of the young plant until it can send out its roots and leaves ; 
and (3) a coat inclosing both young plant and nourishment. That all this 
may be clear to the pupils, the following experiments should be performed, 
also observing the development of the plant from the seed: 

Experiment I. 

A Study in Seed Germination. 

Apparatus and material needed: 

Two ordinary dinner plates or two eight-inch pie tins. 

Two pieces of blotting or filter paper, or Canton flannel of proper size 

to rest in the plate or pan used. 
A beaker or cup of water. 
Ten beans of any variety. 

The experiment: 

1. Place one of the pieces of paper or cloth in the bottom of a plate 

or tin. If the cloth is used, thoroughly wet and wring out before 
placing it in the bottom of the plate or tin. If the paper is used, 
wet thoroughly after it is set in place. 

2. Distribute the ten beans over the paper or cloth. 

3. Place the remaining paper or cloth over the beans, wetting the cloth 

before putting in place (or the paper afterwards). 

4. Add water to the bottom of the plate or tin, but not enough to stand 

deeper than the i)aper or cloth lying on the bottom. 

5. Cover the plate or tin by placing the remaining one, inverted, over 

it, and set in a warm room. 

6. See, each day, that water enough is added to keep the moist condition 

of plate and paper, or cloth, al^out as it was the first day. 

7. Examine the beans each day and (a) notice and record any changes 

that take place, (b) Open one bean each day for three days, and 
examine the embryo or young plant. 

8. Set apart one particular bean and make a drawing of it each day 

for ten days, to show the changes that take place. 



STUDY IN CROPS. 9 

Experiment II. 

A Study in Seed Germination. 

Apparatus and material needed: 

One dinner plate or eight-inch pie tin. 

Two pieces of filter paper or two pieces Canton flannel of proper size 
to lie in bottom of plate or tin. 

Ten kernels of good seed corn. 
The experiment: 

1. Place a piece of filter paper in a plate or tin and wet, or wet a piece 

of cloth and place in bottom of plate or tin. 

2. Distribute the ten kernels of corn over the paper or cloth. 

3. Place the remaining paper or cloth over the corn, properly wetting 

the paper after, or the cloth before, so placing. 

4. Add water enough to just cover the bottom of the plate. 

5. Cover the plate or tin by placing the remaining one, inverted, over 

it, and set in a warm room. 

6. See, each day, that the moisture condition in the plate is kept about 

as it was the first day. 

7. Examine the corn each day and note how the young plant makes 

its appearance and whether it is alike in all cases. 

8. Set jipart one particular kernel of corn and make a drawing of it 

each day for eight days to show the changes that take place. 

Experiment III. 

How the Young Plants Appear Above Ground. 

Apparatus and material needed: 

One one-quart pudding or bean pan. 
One quart of air-dry sandy soil. 
Ten beans. 

The experiment: 

1. Fill the pan three-fourths full of the sandy soil, shake down, and 

smooth over. 

2. Add water until the soil is thoroughly wet and the water begins to 

glisten in the surface of the soil. 

3. Place the ten beans upon the soil in the pan — two on their sides^ 

two on one end, two on the other end, two with the scar down, 
and two with the scar up. Make a chart of the planting. 

4. Cover these beans to the depth of one-half inch with the air-dry 

soil. 

5. If on the next day the soil is not all moist, add just water enough 

to moisten. 

6. Examine from day to day. Add water sufficient to keep surface 

from drying. Note (1) the manner and (2) the order in which 
the plants come up, and make a record of the same. 

7. When the young plants have all appeared above the surface, care- 

fully pull up one of them, examine, and make a drawing of it. 
Before pulling, it may be necessary to loosen the soil. 
S. Did the positions in which the beans were planted affect the order 
in which the young plants appeared? 
Did it affect the manner in which the}' came up? 



10 DEPARTMEX'l' OF PUBLIC INSTKCCTION. 

EXPERIMKNT lY. 

How the Young Plants Appear Above Ground. 

Kei)eat Itxijeriiueut III usiii<i; corn iiisteail of l^eans. 

Experiment V. 

How the Young Plants Appear Above Ground. 

Repeat Experiment III using other seeds and grains, all together or 
separately, in order that the pupils may observe the manner in Avhich 
the young plants ap]:/ear above ground. 



Experiment VI. 



Quantity of Food Stored in Seed. 



Apjxiratus aU'l )»(i((rial needed: 

One fovu'-quart pan. 

One gallon of well-washed, pure quartz sand, or the same amount of 
good clean building sand, which has stood for some time in strong 
hydrochloric acid and then has been thoroughly washed. 

Four large and four very small kernels of the following: corn, wheat, 
oats, beans, and peas. 

The experiment: 

1. Fill the pan three-fourths full of the sand. 

2. Moisten until thoroughly wet. 

3. Distribute the several four seed lots over the surface of the sand 

with the different lots sufficiently separated that when they start 
to grow they will still be distinguishable as groups. Carefully 
make a chart on paper of the distribution of the lots to help later 
in locating the young plants. 

4. Oover the grain and seed with a half-inch layer of the sand. 

5. Set in a room having a temperature ranging from 70° to 85° F., and 

water just enough from time to time to keep the surface from 
l)ecoming dry. 

6. Observe each clay until all plants cease to grow, and record observa- 

tions. 

7. Do you discover any difference — 

1st. In the time required for the plants from the small and the large 
seeds or kernels to appear alcove ground? 

2nd. In the size of plants from the small and the large seeds or kernels 
when they have ceased to grow? 
If there is an observable difference, account for it if possible. 

8. Do the results in this experiment suggest a rule for practice on the 

farm? If so, formulate it. 



NoiE. — Pure quartz sand can be had of the Wausau Quartz Co., Wausau, Wi-sconsin. 



SrUDY IN CROPS. 



11 



Experiment VII. 



The Depth to Which Seed Should be Planted. 

Apparaius and material needed: 
Four deep one-gallon jary. 
Enough well-moistened, well-crumbled loaiu soil or sandy soil 

these jars. 
Sixteen good kernels each of corn, oats, and wheat. 
Twenty good seeds of red clover. 

The experiment: 



to fill 



9. 
10. 



Fill the jars with the soil. 

In one of the jars of soil plant four kernels of corn six inches deej). 

four kernels four inches deep, four kernels two inches deep, and 

four kernels one inch deep. 
Note: To plant the kernels of corn use a round stick with a square 

end. With the stick make a hole for each kernel. Introduce 

the kernels into the holes and fill the holes with the crumbled soil. 
In the same way, plant the sixteen kernels of oats in another jar. 
In the same way, plant the sixteen kernels of wheat in the third jar. 
In the remaining jar plant the twenty seeds of June clover — four seeds 

six inches deep, four seeds four inches deep, four seeds two inches 

deep, four seeds one inch deep, and four seeds one-half inch deep. 
Note: Use a smaller stick to make the holes for the clover seed. 
It would lie well to make a chart of the plantings in each jar. 
Place all the jars in a room with temperature ranging from 70° to 

85° F. 
Moisten enough to kee]) surface from drying, but do not moisten 

heavily. 
Make a record of the rate and number of germinations. 
If after three weeks any of the kernels or seeds have failed to send 

plants to the surface, carefully remove the soil, making reference 

to the proper chart, if necessary, and discover and record why 

the young plant has failed to reach the surface. 
Use a table like the following for each jar: 



Gerniinati 


on 


of Seed 


s at 


Various D 


epths. 
















Depth of planting. 


Number of germinution.s to the day indicated. 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 




































































. 



























































































































Combine what you learn from this experiment with what you learned 
in experiment No. XX in soils and what you may learn later in experi- 
ment No. XIV of this series, and make a rule for the depth of planting 
seed. 



12 



DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 



Experiment VIII. 



Effect of Age Upon the Vitality of Seed. 

Apparatus and material needed: 

One wooden box, 10 inches x IS inches x 2 inches deep. 

Lots of seed corn 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 years old respectively and a sample 
also of the last preceding crop. 

Enough well-crumbled, air-dr}^, sandy soil to fill the box. 

A straight-edge. 
The experiment: 

1. Fill the box rounding full with the soil, tap lightly, and strike off the 

surface. 

2. Lay off six lines two inches apart and running the width of the box. 

3. Count out ten kernels from each lot of corn. 

4. Plant these six lots of corn in order of age — one lot on each line 

marked on the soil in the box. Plant to the depth of one inch. 

5. Cover the kernels and place the box where the temperature will 

range from 70 to 90 degrees. See that the soil is kept moist but 
not too much so. 

6. Observe and record the rate and vigor of germination. 
Use a table like this: 



Vitality of Old Seed Com. 



Age of seed. 


Total germination up to and including 
the day indicated. 


S 
o 

si 

o 


1 

> 

o 
i~t 
(p 

•a 

u< 

O 




3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 




New 






























1 year 






























2 years 






























3 years 




















. . . . 










4 years 






























5 years 





























































7. How old should seed corn be to give best germination according to 

results obtained in this experiment? 

8. Are you sure that the lots of seed used in this experiment were saved 

with equal care? 



The above experiment should be. repeated, using different grains and seeds 
common to field and garden. Assign one kind of seed or grain to one pupil 
and another to another. 

Plant corn, beans, and peas one inch deep in the boxes; wheat oats, barley, 
flax, etc., one-half inch deep; and clover, timothy, and the like one-fourth 
inch deep. Have pupils compare results and conclusions. 



STUDY IN CROPS. 



13 



It may not be possible to procure at once seeds and grains of different 
ages or those originally saved with uniform care and judgment. Each year 
a stock of the best fresh seed should be collected and saved for future study. 



The Vitality of Bin Grains. 

If pupils have access to grain bins on the farm, have them bring in gallon 
samples of grain that have molded or musted in the bin because of excessive 
dampness. Keep the lots so brought in separate. 

If the pupils can procure, at the time of threshing, grains that have molded 
in the shock from being "shocked" too green, or that have molded or rotted 
in the shock or stack from wetting, have theivi bring in gallon samples. 

These samples should be preserved in glass or metallic receptacles with 
close-fitting covers, and should be carefully and completely labeled. 

There should be gathered, also, bin grains that have not suffered from 
mold, and these should be preserved and labeled. 

Experiment IX. 

Apparatus and material needed: 

A number of 100-kernel lots of molded oats. 

One 100-kernel lot of good seed oats. 

One wooden box, 10 inches x 18 inches x 2 inches deep, for every three 

lots of grain. 
Sufficient air-dry, fine, sandy soil to fill the boxes. 

The experiment: 

1. Fill the box or boxes with soil, rounding full, settle by tapping, and 

strike off with a straight-edge. 

2. Divide the surface of the soil in each box into three areas— 10 inches 

by 6 inches each. 

3. Plant in each of these areas one 100-kernel lot of oats, carefully 

labeling each area. Plant to depth of one-half inch. 

4. Thoroughly wet down the soils in the boxes. 

5. Set the box of boxes where the temperature will range from 70° to 

85° F. and see to it that the soil is kept moist, but not too much so 
— never so moist as after the first wetting. 

6. Observe and record the rate and number of germinations, using 

table like the one below: 



Oerniination of Poor and of Good Seed Oats. 



Description. 




Total germinations on day indicated. 




O ci 

c oj o 

o 


o S'i5 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


6C >. =H 



















































































































































































14 DEPARTMENT OF PUBIJC INSTIUX'TION. 

7. ()bser\e and record the vigor of the 3'oung plants. 

8. Do the results suggest any new ideas concerning the saving of seed 

oats? Do they confirm any old ideas? Do they suggest any 

\\-arnings against methods now in use? 
It would be well to repeat this experiment by using other grains and seeds. 
Or each ])upil might be assigned a certain kind of seed or grain to experiment 
with. Then have pupil bring together the results obtained and compare 
and discuss results and conclusions. This experiment has a most important 
bearing uj^on crop yields. 

Experiment X. 

Vitality of Sprouted Grain. 

Apparatui^ and material needed: 

One-fourth pint of wheat, home grown preferable. 

One pint dish. 

One wooden box, 10 x IS x 2 inches deep. 

Enough air-dry, well-crumbled sandy soil to fill the box. 

The experiment: 

1. Place one-eighth pint of wheat in the bottom of the pint dish; cover 

with water and keep covered for a few days. Keep in a room 
with temperature ranging from 70° to 85° F. The wheat will 
soon begin to sprout. 

2. As rapidly as the kernels accpiire sprouts one-sixteenth inch long, 

remove the kernels and place on a ]iiece of blotting paper and dry 
in warm room. In this way pick out and dry at least 200 kernels 
and allow to dry for one week. 

3. Fill the box with the soil as descriljed in experiment seven and divide 

the surface into three divisions — 10 inches by 6 inches each. 

4. Count out two 100-kernel lots of the dry si)routed kernels, and also 

one 100-kernel lot of the imsprouted wheat — that which was not 
covered with water. 

5. Plant the two sprouted lots of wheat in the end areas of the box 

and plant the lot of unsprouted wheat in the middle area. Plant 
one-half inch deej). 

6. Wet down the soil in the box and set the box in a room having a 

temperature ranging from 70° to 85° F. Water from time to time, 
but not excessively. 

7. Observe and record the number and rate of germinations. I'se a 

tal)le soniolhing like the one below: 



STUDY IN CROPS. 



15 



Germination of Sprouted and Unsprouted Seeds 


• 








Description. 


Total germinations on day indicated. 


Vigor of 
young 
plants. 


Per cent of 
germina- 
tion. 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 






















































































• 
































































































Difference between sp'ted 





























































8. How do the results agree with your previous notion concerning the 

vitahty of sprouted grains? 

9. Would you advise the practice of using sprouted grains for seed? 
This experiment may well be repeated, using other grains and seeds. 

Vitality of Kernels from Different Parts of the Ear of Corn. 

The question is often asked whether the kernels from different parts of 
the ear of corn are ecjually good for seed, or whether some should be dis- 
carded, and if so, why? 

Experiment XI. 

Apparatus and materials 7ieeded: 

Three wooden boxes 10 x IS x 2 inches. 

Enough air-dry light, sandy soil to fill the boxes. 

Three well-filled, carefully saved ears of seed corn. 



The experiment: 

1. Fill the boxes with the soil as in previous experiments. 

2. From one of the ears shell off carefully 50 kernels from the extreme 

tip of the ear, 50 kernels from around the middle of the ear, and 
50 kernels from the extreme butt of the ear. 

3. Divide the surface of one of the boxes of soil into three areas — 10 

inches x 6 inches each. 

4. In the middle area plant the 50 middle kernels, in one of the end 

areas plant the 50 tip kernels, and in the remaining one, the 50 
butt kernels. 

5. In like manner shell off from another ear 50 each of tip, middle. 

and Iiutt kernels and plant in one of the other boxes. 

6. In like manner plant 50 each of tip, middle and butt kernels from 

the third ear in the remaining box. 

7. Carefully label the l)oxes and the areas in which tip, middle and 

butt kernels are planted. 
3 



IG 



DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 



8. Thoroughly moisten the soil in the boxes and keep just moist enough 

to prevent the surface from getting dry. 
0. Place the boxes in a room with temperature ranging from 70° to 85° F. 
10. 01)serve and record the number, rate, and vigor of germinations, 

usin"; a table like the following: 



Gei-iuiuation of Tip 


, Mi 


(Idle 


and 


Butt Kernels 


of i 


Jorn 








Description of 
kernels. 


O 

6 


Total number of germinations on day indicated. 




o 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 




1 

2 
3 






























Tips 1 














































































i 








f 


1 

2 
3 






























Middles •, 





























































































f 


1 
2 
3 
















1 
Butts •( 


















































































i 





11. On the fourteenth day or when germination is complete, determine 
the average height of each lot of corn plants and record. 

12. Shall the farmer shell off tip and butt kernels from ears when 

13reparing his seed corn? Give reasons for your answer. 

13. Compare and discuss results. 

14. Ask your farmer friends whether they discard tip and butt kernels, 

and if they do, why? 
If there are more than three pupils in the class, furnish one ear of corn 
and germinatino- box for each. 



The Importance of Early Saving and Drying of Seed Corn. 

For this work the teacher or some very trustworthy person should prepare 
the corn to be used or direct the ])U|)ils in the preparation. 

1. He should select a number of good ears before the first severe frost. 
These ears should l)e carefully dried at a temperature ranging from 70° 
to 80° F., stored, and later shelled for class use. 

2. He should as late in the season as possible select an eciual number of 
ears as good as the first k)t of ears selected. These ears should be hung 
where the ojiport unity for drying is not good and where later they will 
freeze. An open corn crib or shed would be a good place to hang the corn. 
Later, dry, shell, and store for class use. 

3. Select an equal numl)er of ears from the corn crib when winter weather 
has thoroughly set in. Place in pail or other vessel of water and let stand 
until they are well soaked. Then place them where they will freeze solid. 
After a week, drv, and later shell and store for class use. 



STUDY IN CROPS. 



17 



Experiment XII. 

Effect of Freezing Upon the Vitality of Seed Corn. 

Apparatus and material needed: 

One wooden box 10 x 18 x 2 inches deep. 

Enough air-dry fine sandy soil to fill the box. 

Fifty kernels each of the three lots of corn described above. 

The experiment: 

1. Fill the box with the soil as in previous experiments. 

2. Divide the surface of soil in box into three areas, 10 inches x 6 inches 

each. 

3. Plant in these three areas respectively the three lots of corn. 

4. Carefully label the areas. 

5. Thoroughly moisten the soil and thereafter moisten just enough to 

keep surface from drying out. 

6. Place box in a room with temperature ranging from 70° to 85° F. 

7. Observe and record the number, rate, and vigor of germinations, 

using a table like the foUowina:: 





(ierminatioi 


of Frozen Corn. 














Description of corn. 


Total number of germinations on day indicated. 


o^Cx 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


■tos 


<1) Carefully saved and dried.. 




























<2) Carefully saved but not dried 


















. . . . 










{3) Crib corn wet and frozen .... 





























































Difference between lots 1 and 2. . 











































Difference between lots 1 and 3 . . 





































8. Do you discover any differences in the number, rate, and vigor of 

germinations? Account for any such differences. 

9. Does the experiment suggest an important practice in saving seed 

corn ? 

Experiment XIII. 



Necessity for Air in the Germination of Seeds. 

Apparatus and material needed: 

Six one-quart pudding or bean pans. 

Two quarts finely crumbled air-dry clay soil. 

Two quarts finely-crumbled air-dry loamy soil. 

Two quarts finely crumbled air-dry fine sandy soil. 

Six 25 kernel lots of good seed corn, all from the same lot of bulk seed. 



18 



DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC IN8TRUC1T0N. 



llie experiment: 

1. Fill one i)an half-full of the clay soil, weigh the pan and contents 

and introduce into another pan enough of the clay soil to bring 
its weight to that of the first pan. 

2. Smooth down the soil in each pan to bring to uniform dei)th, and tap 

the sides of the pans to settle the soil. 

3. 0^'er the surface of the soil in each pan distribute a 25-kernel lot 

of corn, and then add to one of the pans one-half inch of the clay 
soil. Weigh the pan and contents, and add enough soil to the other 
pan to make the weights of the pans eciual again. Niunber these 
pans 1 and 2. 

4. Fill two other pans with the loam soil. Place 25-kernel lots of corn 

in each, and cover with half-inch layers of the loamy soils, following 
the tUrections given in paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 above. Number 
these pans 3 and 4- 

5. In like manner, fill two pans with fine sandy soil. Introduce 25-kernel 

lots of corn and add a half-inch laj^er of fine sandy soil. Number 
these pans 5 and 6. 

6. To pans 1, 3, and 5 add water enough to thoroughly moisten, and 

thereafter just enough to keep the surface from getting dry, but 
not enough to prevent the clay from cracking. (In applying 
water, lay a piece of paper upon the surface of the soil and pour 
the water lightly upon the pa]5er. The water thus s}) reads from 
the paper over the. soil without tearing up the soil). 

7. To pans 2, 4 fi-nd 6 add water till it stands one-fourth inch deep over 

the surface after the soil has been thoroughly saturated, and there- 
after enough to keep the surface covered at all times. (Use a piece 
of paper in applying water as described above). 

8. Set the pans in a room where the temi)erature ranges from 70° to 

85° F. 

9. Observe and record the nund)er, rate and vigor of germinations. 

using a table like the following: 









(i 


erniiiia 


tioii 


of 


Com in 


Uiffereii 


t Soils. 












Moist iiH' 
ooiidition. 

f 


Kind of 
soil. 

Clav 


Total number of germinations on tlie 
(lay indicated. 


o 
> 

o 

•a 
O 


Germinations 

after removal 

of excess of water. 


.3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


" 


12 


13 


14 






























































































































^ 


Clav 












Execs- 1 
sive < 






































! 












































1 





























STUDY IN CROPS. 19 

10. Account for any differences in the rate antl luunber of germinations. 

11. Have you ever noticed a similar difference in germinations, and for 
apparently similar reasons in fields of corn? 

12. Does this experiment suggest to you a lesson in field management? 
If so, what is it? 

This experiment may be varied as follows: 

13. At the close of the tenth day carefully remove with a pipette or 
glass tube as much of the excess of water as you can conveniently. 
Allow the remaining excess to evaporate until the soil begins to 
crack, after which add just water enough to keep the soil moist. 

14. Observe and record any further germinations. 

15. If more germinations clo occur, account for them. 

16. Observe also whether these new germinations are as vigoroiLs as 
the earlier. Account for differences. 

This experiment might be repeated, using other grains and seeds. 

Experiment XIV. 



Effect of Temperature on the Germ.ination of Seed. 

Apparatus and materials needed: 
Three one-quart pans. 
Three quarts of air-dry fine sandy soil. 

Three 25-kernel lots of good seed corn, all obtained from the same 
bulk lot. 

The experiment: 

1. Fill the three pans one-half full of the sandy soil, even off to uniform 

thickness, and tap pans to settle soil. 

2. In each pan distribute evenly over the surface of the soil one of the 

25-kerneI lots of corn and cover with a half-inch layer of the sandy 
soil. 

3. Add water to each pan to thoroughly moisten the soil, and add 

water thereafter just sufficient to keep surface from becoming dry. 

4. Place one of these pans where it will take on a temperature of 50° F. 

or less, but not less, if possible, than 38° F. 

5. Place another of the pans where it will take on a temperature of 

from 65° to 75° F. — ordinary room temperature. 

6. Place the third pan where it will be subjected to a temj^erature rang- 

ing from 85° to 95° F. 

7. Observe and record the rate, number, and vigor of germinations, 

using a table like the following: 



20 



DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 



Germinations of Corn at Different Temperatures. 



tJ 


Temperature. 




Total number of germina- 
tions on day indicated. 


Vigor of 
plants on 
10th day. 


Total number of germina- 
tifiins on day indicated. 




3 

z 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


1 
14 j 15 


16 


MO 
> *• 


T 


85° to 95° 


































o 




































■^ 


38° to 50° 






































































Di 
Di 


fferesces between 1 
and 2 


































(Terence.s between 1 
and 3 


~ 





— 





— 


— 


— 











































1 












1 








8. After ten days place plants together in a room, temperature ranging 

from 65° to 75° F. and keep properly moistened. 

9. Observe and record germinations as before. 

10. On the sixteenth day observe and record the average height and 

vigor of plants. 

11. What do the results in this experiment teach? 

12. Can the farmer control the temperature of his soil? 

13. Can he modify the temperature of his soil? 

14. Give reasons for both answers. 



Experiment XV. 



Practical Seed Corn Testing. 



Apparatui=i and viakrials needed: 

One wooden box 10 x 18 x 2 inches. 
Twent3^-five feet of store wrapping twine. 
Enough air-dry light sandy soil to fill box. 
Fourty-two to 140 ears of seed corn. 
Fifty tacks or three-quarter inch brads. 
A straight edge. 



The experiment: 

1. On the sides and ends of the box, one-foiu"th inch below the edge, 

drive tacks or brads one and one-fourth inches ajjart, allowing the 
heads to stand out one-eighth to one-fourth inch. 

2. Fill the box with the soil, tap lightly, and strike off. 

3. Tie or loop one end of the string to one of the corner tacks or brads 

and stretch back and forth over the surface and under the tack 
or brad heads after the manner illustrated in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. 
(This divides the surface of the box of soil into eight rows of squares, 
with fourteen squares in each row, and each square one and one- 
fourth inches on a side. 



STUDY IN CROPS. 



21 



4. On the ends number the rows, and on the sides number the squares in 
the rows. 




Fig. 1. — Galvinized iron germinator. Small notches are cut in the rim at intervals of IJ inches 
carry the string or wire which divides the germinating surface inte IJ inch squares. Thislfigure 



to 

shows four rows of kernels in place. 







V 
^\\ 






Fig. 2. — Same as Fig. 1, after four daj-s. 




Fig. 3. — Same as Fig. 1 after seven days. At the end of seven days the young plants have made a 
sufBcient growth to give some idea of their vigor. 

5. Place the seed corn in rows on tables, shelves or floor, 14 ears per 
row, and number the rows to correspond with the rows of squares 
in box of soil. 



DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

6. Remove four kernels of corn from each ear of row one and plant each 

four kernels so removed in the corresponding sc{uare of row one of 
the scpiares. Remove the four kernels from as many separate 
points on the ear. Plant the kernels tips down and deep enough 
to have the back of the kernels about one-eighth of an inch below 
the surface. 

7. In like manner plant four kernels from each of the ears of the other 

rows. Keep all rows in order. 

8. Moisten the soil and keep ])roperly moistened. 

9. Place l)ox and contents in room where temperature ranges from 

75° to 85° F. 

10. On the seventh day examine carefully and if in any scjuare there 

fails to occur four vigorous germinations, discard the ear from 
which the four kernels were taken. 

11. Read in connection with this experiment. Corn Improvement, p. 

293. Report of Michigan Board of Agriculture for 1906. 

12. What per cent of ears are you recpiired to discard? 



CORN JUDGING. 

Much attention is given in corn growing sections of the country to the study 
of the ear of corn. This study brings us ultimately to corn judging. Many 
texts in agriculture now take up a discussion of this important subject. 

An exercise in corn judging is here offered, including a description of a 
})erfect ear of corn and directions for scoring in accordance with the rules 
of the Michigan Corn Improvement Association. The description and 
directions are* copied from special bulletin No. 34, Michigan Experiment 
Station. See p. 293, Report of Michigan Board of Agriculture for 1906. 

THE IDEAL OK PERFECT EAR. 

It is not often found. It must possess certain physical qualities or 
characteristics : 

1. Shape. In shape it should be cylindrical, or only slightly 
tapering. The very tapering ear is being bred away from. The 
rows should be straight, extending completely from butt to tip. 

2. Color. The cobs should be red for yellow corn, white for white 
corn, and red or white for the white caps as now bred, but all red 
or all white. 

There should be no kernels present indicating by color or shape that 
cross polinating from another l)reed has taken place. 

'.]. Tips. The tips should be well covered with kernels of uni- 
form size, the rows remaining unl:)roken to the end. The c[uestion 
as to whether the cob may not })rotrude slightly is an open one. 

4. Butts. The butts should be well rounded as shown in the Fig. 
4. The shank or ear stalk should equal about one-third the total 
diameter of the ear. 



STUDY IN CROPS. 



23 



5. Kernels. The kernels should be wedge-shaped, so that they 
shall fill completely all space between the circumference of the ear 
and the circiunference of the cob. See Figs. 6 and 7. To examine 
kernels, remove two kernels side by side from the cob, one-third or 
one-half the distance from butt to tip, and lay them on some flat 
surface, germs up in the same relative position they occupied en 
the cob. 




Fig. 4. — A very good butt and tip. 





Fig. 5. — Two poor butts. The left one would be cut at least a half point, while the right one 
would be cut at feast three tenths of a point, under our rules for scoring. 



24 DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

6. Length and circumference. At the present time the standards 
of the Michigan Corn Improvement Association are 9 inches for 
length and 7 inches for circumference. The circumference is meas- 
ured one-third the distance from butt to tip. 




Fig. 6. — A study of kernels. 

The upper three kernels are well proportioned and occupy completely the space between the cir- 
cumference of the ear and the circumference of the cob. 

The upper right hand two kernels are poorly shaped, and leave a lot of unoccupied space. 

The lower right hand two kernels show how the white rice popcorn kernels occupy the space. 

The lower two kernels are of the shoe-peg type. 

The left two kernels show the relative shape and position of flint kernels as compared with the upper 
three dent kernels. 

It is thought by many that it woukl be better not to have definite arbitrary 
standards for length and circumference, but that it would be better to re- 
quire a definite relation between length and circumference, with a stated 
definite minimum length of each. 

7. Spaces, (a) The outer spaces between rows should be small. 
With very rare exceptions ears have even numbers of rows, and 
the rows are in pairs. This distinctness of pairing of rows is con- 
sidered one of the evidences of good breeding. The space between 
the rows in the pairs is smaller than the spaces between the pairs, 
(b). There should be no spaces between kernels as they stand in 
the rows. In Fig. 8 a these spaces are seen clearly between the 
lower one-fourth of the kernels. The spaces do not appear in Fig. 
8 h. 

8. Per cent of grain to ear. The M. C. I. A. requires that 100 
pounds of ears shall shell out 88 pounds of grain, and individual 
ears shall shell in that proi^ortion. 



STUDY IN CROPS. 



25 




Fig. 7. — A study of kernels. Tlie shoe-peg type is seen in tl:e upper left hand corner. The three 
kernels in the upper right hand corner approach most nearly to the ideal .shape. Note the unoccupied 
space because of the rounding edges in most of the cases. 




Fig. 8. — An examination of (a) reveals large spaces between the kernels in the row for J the length 
of kernel from the cob out. No such spaces are found between the kernels of (b). (c) is a cross sec- 
tion of a very good ear of Michigan corn. 



26 DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

In eoni judging the following additional points are considered: 

9. Triieness to type. It is not sufficient that the ears shall be 
properly sha]ied, etc.; they must have also the special character- 
istics of the breed to which they belongs — the roughness or smooth- 
ness of kernel, the style of dimple, general outline of kernel, etc. 

10. ITniformity. Ears may show that they belong to a particular 
breed, and yet lack in uniformity of appearance, just as a group of 
cows may leave no doubt as to what lireed they belong, and yet 
may not be imiform in ajjjjearance in the group. 

11. Market condition. This takes into account whether the 
corn is ripe, sound, free from disease and injury, bright in color, 
and of apparently good vitality. 

12. Uniformity of kernels. Two kernels are removed from each 
ear as descriljed above and the pairs placed in rows for compari- 
son. Every pair should look like every other pair in shape and 
size. 

Apparatus and niaterials needed. 

Several ten-ear lots of the best dent corn that can be had. 
One thirty-six inch tape. 

CORN JUDGING OR SCORING. 

In judging corn, 10 ears are studied, their defects determined and charged 
against them. The score card is a convenient form for use in this work. 



STUDY IN CROrS. 



CORN. 

SCORE CARD. 



Scale of Points. 



1 Uniformity. 

(a) Truene, s to type 

(b) Unifoiinity of exhibit . 

2 Sliape of ear 

3 Color 

4 Market condition 

5 Tips 

6 Butts 



Kernels. 

(a) Uniformity. 



(b) Shape 

Length of ear 

Circumference of ear. 



10 Space. 

(a) Between rows 



(b) Between kernels at cob. 

11 Proportion of grain to ear — 

Total 



Standard. 



10 



Student's 
score . 



Corrected 
score. 



Date 

Variety ■• 

Weight of five ears 

Weight of grain from these live 
Proportion of grain to ear 



The following outline of things considered and rules for cuts is found 
convenient for beginners in corn judging: 



28 



DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 



OUTLINE FOR SCORING DENT CORN. 
Department of practical Agriculture, M, A. C. 



Things to Consider. 



1 (a) I Nearness of approach to type as to gen- 
eral form of kernel, indentation, etc. 



(b) Likeness between ears exhibited. 



Shape of ear. Arrangement and char- 
acter of rows. 



Fi'eedom from cross-breeding. 

Trueness to variety color of kernel and 
cob. 

♦Ripeness, soundness, freedom from in- 
jury, brightness of color and vitality. 



Uniformity of kernels, regularity of rows 
completeness of covering.! 



Manner of rounding out and quahty of 
kernels. 



7 (a) Likeness in shape and conformity to type. 



Rule for Cuts. 



* point off for each variation from type. 



i point off for each odd ear. 



A point off for each poorly shaped ear. 



in ^«,„f^ ««■ f„,. f red cob in white ear or 
10 pomts off foi ^ ^^.jj.j^ ^^y^ ^^ ygiiQ^. p^j._ 

1-10 point oft" for each mixed kernel. % 



1 point off for every diseased, injured, chaffy, 
or immature ear. 



} point off for every badly covered tip. 
i point off for every inch of exposed tip. 
i point off for every J inch exposed tip. 



(b) 



10 (a) 



(b) 



Approach to ideal wedge shape. 



Variation from standard length. 



Variation from standard circumference. 



Outer space. 



Inner space. 



11 



Per cent of grain to ear. 



A point off for every uncovered butt. 
3-10 point off when butt is covered but ker- 
nels are flat. 



i point for each set of kernels lacking in 
general uniformity. 



* point oft' for each set of poorly shaped 
kernels. 



1 point off for every inch of excess or de- 
ficiency in length' of ear. 



1 point off for every 2 inches of excess or 
deficiency in circumference of ear. 



No cut for less than 1-32 inch between rows. 
i point off for 1-32 to 1-16 inch between rows. 
* point off for 1-16 inch between rows. 



;; to ": point off for each marked case of space 
between near points of rows. 



1 point off for each per cent short in weight of 
corn. 



♦Indicated by firmness of kernel on cob. tDoes not have reference to length of cob. 

JKernels missing coimt as mixed kernels. , , ,, oo^- 

For Dent Corn ears slioukl liave length of 9 inches, circumference of 7 inches, and shell 88%.grain. 



LIBRftRY OF CONGRESS 



J I mill III 1 11 mil il II II III. 

002 680 415 2 



